Determinants of Terrestrial and Limnic Species Richness in Germany

Authored by

Julia S. Ellerbrok, Maria Sporbert, Vera Schreiner, Christian Ristok, Nina Farwig, Georg J.A. Hähn, Reinhard Klenke, Gunnar Seidler, Jori Maylin Marx, Anja Schmidt, Josef Settele, Christian Wirth, Christian Albert, Claus Bässler, Veronika Braunisch, Heiko Brunken, Klaus Jürgen Conze, David Eichenberg, Nico Eisenhauer, Götz Ellwanger, Joshua Ferenczy, Bettina Gerlach, Dagmar Haase, Alexander Harpke, Fabian Herder, Florian Jansen, Johannes Kamp, Jakob Katzenberger, Peter Keil, Elisabeth Kühn, André Mascarenhas, Jörg Müller, Martin Musche, Hong Hanh Nguyen, Peter Pogoda, Axel Ssymank, Frank Suhling, Heide Rose Vatterrott, Thilo Wellmann, Helge Bruelheide

Abstract

Aim: Biodiversity is increasingly threatened by human impacts. While abiotic conditions are well known to shape species richness, the role of human activities remains less clear. We examined how abiotic and human factors influence terrestrial and limnic species richness in a densely populated region with a long land-use history. Location: Germany. Time Period: 1900–2023 (varies by taxonomic group). Major Taxa Studied: Mammals, breeding birds, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, butterflies, dragonflies, fungi, vascular plants. Methods: Species richness data were aggregated in 11 × 11 km grid cells and related to abiotic (climate, soil) and human drivers (land use, protection status). We applied a two-step approach: (1) Boosted Regression Trees (BRTs) to select relevant predictor variables and (2) Generalised Additive Models (GAMs) to test their effects, accounting for spatial autocorrelation. Results: Land-use and climate were similarly important for species richness (26% vs. 21% in BRTs), while protection status and soil contributed less (8% and 9%). GAMs showed positive effects of temperature across many groups. Among land-use factors, human footprint, urban open spaces and water bodies consistently enhanced richness. Protected areas were positively related to richness, whereas soil variables had mixed effects. Main Conclusions: In Germany, species richness peaks not only in semi-natural, protected areas but also along water bodies and within settlement open spaces. These results suggest that conservation strategies should integrate both traditional protected areas and human-modified habitats that sustain high biodiversity.

Details

Organisation(s): Institute of Environmental Planning
External Organisation(s): Philipps-Universität Marburg
Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg
German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig
Leipzig University
University of Bologna
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ)
Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry (MPI-BGC)
University of Bayreuth
Bavarian Forest National Park Administration
University of Bern
Forestry Research and Experimental Station of Baden-Württemberg
Bremen University of Applied Sciences
German Ichthyological Society (GfI)
Gesellschaft deutschsprachiger Odonatologen e. V. (GdO)
Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BFN)
Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten e.V. (DDA)
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (HU Berlin)
University of Rostock
University of Göttingen
Biologische Station Westliches Ruhrgebiet e.V. (BSWR)
University of Stuttgart
Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg
University of Duisburg-Essen (UDE)
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde (DGHT)
Technische Universität Braunschweig
Type: Article
Journal: Diversity and Distributions
Volume: 32
ISSN: 1366-9516
Publication date: 25.03.2026
Publication status: Published
Peer reviewed: Yes
ASJC Scopus subject areas: Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics
Sustainable Development Goals: SDG 13 - Climate Action, SDG 15 - Life on Land
Electronic version(s): https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.70170 (Access: Open )